Сomparing “A Women to Her Lover”, “How Do I Love Thee?”, “When We Two Parted”, “Remember” and “Villegiature”

I will compare A Women to Her Lover by Christina Walsh, How Do I Love Thee? By Elizabeth Barrett Browning, When We Two Parted by Lord Byron, Remember by Christina Rossetti and Villegiature by Edith Nesbit. The poems I have chosen, four are written by women and one by a man and I think that this is a representative romance as women are more romantic. The only man I have chosen is Lord Byron. There is a common theme in these poems which is the theme of love. In two of the other poems I have chosen Villigiature and A Woman To Her Lover the theme of love is related to powerful and equal love. I think that Remember and How Do I Love Thee? are representatives of the Romantic movement because they stimulate many aspects of the theme of love and the poets do this by showing their love through the poems and I think that A Women to Her Lover, When We Two Parted and Villegiature are not representative of what we believe to be typical of the Romantic movement as they write with very bitter words in their poems which could hardly be romantic in the most common sense. The first two I will compare is A Woman to her lover and â€Å"How Do I Love Thee? and â€Å"A Woman to Her Lover†. This is about a woman who is fighting with her lover telling him that she is not a slave and she will not sit in the house all day looking after his children. She gives ultimatums to the man. She does not want him to expect her to be â€Å"a wingless angel who can do no wrong†, i. e. the ‘perfect wife' who's place is in the home. At the end of the poem she says â€Å"But lover, if you ask of me/That I shall be your comrade, friend, and mate†. This shows that the woman is ready to love him and be loved but on a very equal footing. A very modern perception and not one attached to typical romantic writings â€Å"How do I Love Thee? † is about the feelings that a woman has about her lover; assuming that this poem was written for Robert Browning, her husband, the poet is almost treating him like a God. â€Å"For ends of Being and ideal Grace†. She talks mostly about God. Christina Walsh in â€Å"A Woman To Her Lover† also talks about God at the end of her poem â€Å"Until we reach the very heart of God† however she wants her lover to be passionate about love and through that passion they would reach ultimate heights together. She is asking for equality but Elizabeth Barratt Browning just talks about how she worships her husband. â€Å"A Woman To Her Lover† is a non-reflective poem, portraying a female perspective of love. The moment we read the title of the poem, we think of the word ‘lover' as portraying equality with relationship; the woman is talking to her lover whereas in most romantic themes, women are either talked about or to. â€Å"How Do I Love Thee? † is also portraying a female perspective of love however this time it is towards her husband. This poem has deep love from the wife without rational reasoning. It is the opposite of â€Å"A Woman To Her Lover†. â€Å"How do I Love Thee? † shows the male as the dominant and she worships her husband, Robert Browning unlike Christina Walsh's message who put across is that women should be equal to men, which could be seen as shocking for its historical context. Other implications of this are the relation of ‘lover' to cohabitation, which is becoming increasingly common in this day and age. This highlights the key theme of the poem, whereby she is getting her message across of demanding equality in a relationship; ‘No servant will I be If that be what you ask, O lover I refuse you! in the first stanza, emotions are strongly evident but very different from the romantic period. She introduces ‘conditional love' and as a result, she is demanding equal rights. Alongside this, ‘physical love' is also suggested. The word ‘lover' tends to bring out the physical aspect of the theme; there is a sense of passion, however there is no reference to marriage where a man had rights over his â€Å"woman's† body. She quotes: ‘my body supple only for your sense delight,/Oh shame, and pity and abasement'. This brings out her bold and daring nature. She uses words like â€Å"comrade†, â€Å"friend† and â€Å"passion†, which put across a completely different tone, showing her more demanding side to the relationship. ‘Woman of our time' Following that, ‘hand holding hand' also is written without gendering to imply belief of equality in a relationship. There is also less evidence of a male dominance in the relationship but in â€Å"How Do I Love Thee? † I think that the male is more dominant because Elizabeth Barratt Browning â€Å"falls to her feet† in the poem. The poem â€Å"A Woman To Her Lover† is written in free verse but â€Å"How Do I Love Thee? † is in a sonnet form. The structure of â€Å"A Woman To Her Lover† reflects the narrator's tone, as she is determinedly commanding freedom and equality, without being restricted by the social constrictions of her time, whereby the norm was that of a male dominated relationship. The sophisticated writing shows traditional contrast to the seemingly modern topic. Her long syntax causes an empowering tone whereby we can tell she is fixed in what she wants. Her strong character is amplified by her use of powerful language, for instance, words like â€Å"bend†, â€Å"bondslave† and â€Å"drudgery†, show her fearless character and also how strongly she wants equality. She alliterates these words in ‘bondslave to bear'. The structure of her syntaxes also conveys a sense of resolution, for example she confidently uses caesuras: ‘Go! – I am no doll'. This also portrays a conditional balance since it is a direct answer to the solution she aims for. Walsh also uses a lot of figurative imagery; and these different types of imagery help amplify the effects the power that love can have on people. Such as use of personification in the last stanza: ‘our co-equal love will make the stars laugh with joy'. Also the words â€Å"stars† and â€Å"spheres† suggest how love with equality exceeding other characteristics of love. Only in the last stanza we see her address her lover as ‘husband', whereby we immediately sense the change of tone, with greater respect towards the one she is addressing. The last line of this stanza consists of the terminology fields of religion, which she portrays by use of divine imagery, as she ends the poem with an overjoyed height of happiness: ‘until we reach the very heart of God'. There was a frequent reference to religion in the romantic period context. This shows the nature of the narrator is very believing. She believes in: herself, God, and the way she is treated by her lover can change, despite her social environment. However, on the other hand, Browning is worshipping her husband and she is willing to do anything for her. Browning lived in a society that was dominated by men, this effected her writing a lot. In the poem â€Å"How Do I Love Thee? † she compares her love to one thing or another â€Å"I love thee with the passion put to use†, she is comparing her love to intensity equal to that experienced during the day. She also refers to the death of her mother and her brothers, â€Å"In my old griefs† her â€Å"old greifs are her mother dying then her brothers.. Villegiature by Edith Nesbit gives the impression that she's lost interest in her husband, telling us that he â€Å"bores me† and she dreams of a romantic love, and one that she indulged herself in with a fling whilst she was away from home. The poem starts with a light-hearted and peaceful mood but the poem â€Å"Remember† has a sad and melancholy tone to it. The speaker in â€Å"Villegiature† wants a stereotype, but she wants one that is found more in literature and poetry than in real life whilst the speaker in â€Å"Remember† wants the love of her life to remember her when she dies. Nesbit uses romantic clichis to say that she wants a man who will treat her more lovingly; she alludes to Shakespeare's Romeo and Juliet because Romeo has the quality she is looking for. The man in her life is far from what she wants; she illustrates him sitting at a desk â€Å"deep in dull books,† using alliteration to show how repetitive and drab the man is. This poem deals with stereotype of realistic men. In the poem â€Å"Remember†, from the starting stanza which quotes ‘Remember me when I am gone away', implies a loving, yet sad, request. One of the aspects of the theme of love evident in this noble sonnet is ‘imperfect love'. This idea is based on the frequently used theme of religion in her work, since Rossetti was devoted to her Christian faith and love of God. At the end of the poem she says â€Å"Better by far that you should forget and smile/Then that you should remember and be sad†. Here she is telling her lover that she rather him forget her and be happy and live his life then to be sad. There is a notion that death is about to tear them apart however this is not immediately clear, since it is vague as to whether she is choosing to leave the person she is addressing, or dying. Death is never named, but is alluded to in the opening lines through the distant, ‘silent land', although we are left uninformed of how much time she has left. This highlights the theme of a parting in love: absence. Villegiature† can also be compared to â€Å"When We Two Parted† by Lord Byron because they are both in a way, harsh towards their lover. Byron uses imagery to describe the â€Å"morning dew† and how it reminds him of the â€Å"shame† he is in. His tone is shameful and his conscience is already getting to him. He portrays her as cold â€Å"pale grew they cheeks and cold,/ colder thy kiss†. He begins with this description of her at their separation; his description of her begins with the physical mention of her cheeks. This beginning admits the foreshadowing of continued sorrow throughout the poem when the speaker says â€Å"truly that hour foretold/ sorrow in this. † This gives a negative connotation to the word â€Å"you† from the very beginning. How they all 3 compare! Loss. These poems all have the theme of loss. In the poem â€Å"When We Two Parted†, Byron loses his lover and he is hurt by that â€Å"Long, long shall I rue thee,/ Too deeply to tell†. In Villegiature Nesbit has lost interest in her husband and has a fling with another person â€Å"Your solid self, long leagues away,/ Deep in dull books, had hardly missed me†. In â€Å"Remember†, Rossetti refers to death and dying and she is telling her lover to move on after she dies â€Å"Remember me when I am gone away,/ Gone far into the silent land†. All of these poems have a continual theme of love however, love is not the same; there is a demand for equal love â€Å"To live and work, to love and die with you†, a worshiping and devoted love â€Å"I love thee with the passion put to use†, a time to move on â€Å"Remember me when I am gone away†, a reminiscing of better time â€Å"I watched the still and dewy lawn†, and a loss of love â€Å"A shudder comes o'er me/ Why wert thou so dear? . The poems â€Å"Remember, When We Two Parted†, and â€Å"Villegiature† are all poems about loss and reminiscence but the poems â€Å"A Woman To Her Lover† and â€Å"How Do I Love Thee? † are about love with a positive outlook. â€Å"A Woman To Her Lover† has the theme of a powerful and equa l love but in â€Å"How Do I Love Thee? † there is strong passion and deep love for the lover and he is almost venerated as a God. â€Å"Remember† deals with the theme of pain, life and joy for the past but â€Å"Villegiature† has a different theme of reminiscence of a distant time when the poet was having a better time.

The Golden Age of Hollywood

By the early mid-thirtiess, American Cinema became a dominant leader on the universe screens. Economical, societal, and cultural factors led Hollywood accomplish this place. During the period between 1927 and 1963, besides referred as the â€Å"Golden age of Hollywood† , a distinguishable cinematic signifier, called Classical Hollywood manner, emerged. Harmonizing to Maltby, â€Å"the thought of â€Å"the classical† implies the observation of regulations of composing and aesthetic organisation that produce integrity, balance, and order in the ensuing artwork† ( 2003: 15 ) . Those regulations of cinematic use and sentence structure of movie, marked Classical Hollywood manner as smooth, fluid and easy apprehensible. Hollywood movies were organized to offer pleasance to their audience and involved sexual experiences, nakedness or offense to accomplish that. For American Catholics, this attitude appeared to be deceptive and corrupting the society. After the attending was given to this fact, in early 1930’s, The Code was written by a group of Hollywood executives, The Motion Picture Producers and Distributors of America ( 2003: 62 ) . A wide scope of regulations and ordinances had bit by bit developed over the old ages in order â€Å"to extinguish any moral ambiguity in a movie’s narrative progression† ( 2003: 473 ) . But how these judicial admissions of the Production Code changed the nature of Hollywood’s merchandises? In order to reply this inquiry I am traveling to present how Hollywood merchandises appeared to be before and after The Production Code by taking an analysis of two utterly incompatible movies:Baby Face( 1933 ) andWuthering Highs( 1939 ) . In the Pre-code period, movies invariably presented people in sexually implicative, and provocative state of affairss and amplified delinquency as a manner to accomplish a better life. Films referenced sexual allusions, libertinism, harlotry, lewdness, crossbreeding, illegal drug usage, force, etc. During the hard economic times of Great Depression ( 1930 – 1940 ) , there formed the belief that the lone manner to acquire fiscal success was through offense. This was the factor that made mobster movies so insurgent to an audience. As an illustration, politically-oriented societal job movies ridiculed politicians by portraying them as incompetent villains and prevaricators where movies likeCaponeorSmall Caesarwere seen as heroic instead than evil. Women, often associated with sexual hints, were a dominant figures in movies. Along with having stronger female characters, movies examined female capable affairs that would non be revisited until decennaries subsequently in American mo vies. Hollywood did non scruple to expose adult females in bare garments, nor did they waver to demo images that allured audience to interracial relationship and sex thoughts. This sort of mentions arouse an thought that Hollywood attempted to make movies for grownups merely, but in fact, it wounded up conveying big audiences of all ages to cinema. This states that above mentioned figures were influential among people in those yearss and allowed Hollywood increase its production extremely. Get downing with the analysis ofBaby Face, let’s see how the pre-code paradigm was working within this movie. The chief character, Lily, has led a hard life working in her unsmooth father’s illegal tap house, who forced her into harlotry since she was 14. After her father’s dies in inadvertent distillery detonation, she is given a opportunity to get down a new life. Her friend, a follower of the instructions of Friedrich Nietzsche, advises her to take an chance to go forth her old life behind and get down a new one by utilizing her power over work forces in order to obtain the things she wants: â€Å"A adult female, immature beautiful like you has power in the universe! & A ; lt ; †¦ & A ; gt ; You must utilize work forces, non allow them utilize you. Be the maestro and do them your slave. & A ; lt ; †¦ & A ; gt ; Exploit yourself! Use work forces! Be strong! Use work forces to acquire the things that you want! † (Baby Face: 1933 ). After sing his counsel, Lily, accompanied with her friend Chico, moves to New York and utilizing her appeal she begins her manner to the top at Gotham Trust Bank. As she was humiliated by work forces in the yesteryear, her purpose is non merely to utilize them for fiscal affair, but besides to destroy them through this procedure. As can be seen, the movie indicates an thought that honestness and kindness are non traveling to acquire people anyplace and in order to accomplish something there is a demand to acquire clasp of more drastic actions. Furthermore,Baby Facearouses an attack that political system works to mistreat weak and hapless people. This is the ground why the relationship between Lily and black miss Chico is so greatly amplified as they represent a category and gender issue in those yearss. Because they are adult females, they both know they are on equal terms and that society treats them as cipher. In the way to alter this settled point of position, Lily abuses the cringle holes of a system. This is one of the many times inBaby Facewhere the deduction of sex is every bit tragic as if audience is a informant to the existent act. Lily’s ability to be unashamedly unfastened to sexual Acts of the Apostless for her ain benefit gave her a liberated esthesia, and made her short ascent up the societal ladder both exceeding and thrilling to watch. The movie disgracefully implies Lily kiping her manner to the top by agencies of cutting to the exterior of the edifice and traveling up a few floors every clip she s eizes a new male lover. The transmutation that Lily goes through via her vesture in the movie demonstrates her addition in societal place and how cold she has become on the interior in order to accomplish that.Baby Faceis non merely about Lily’s mode to utilize sex as a power tool, but besides about work forces who gladly gives off money and other assets to hold an experience of Lily’s animal pleasances. ThusBaby Faceis non about utilizing sex to mount the societal ladder, but mounting it the lone manner it is possible with fortunes that has been given by political system.As there are few movies in the history of film that have of all time been so direct about satisfying the power of sex,Baby Faceis one of the most pre-Code movies that could ne'er hold been released in any signifier following the coming of the Production Code in 1934. Following the July 1, 1934 the determination by studios put power over movie censoring that promoted the new order of concern. Production codification assured Americans that the motion-picture industry is traveling to be purified of coarseness and unscrupulousness, and changed to righteousness and virtuous amusement. The Production Code stipulated the guidelines of â€Å"what was and was non allowable content in Classical Hollywood’s field of representation† for a public audience in the United States ( Maltby, 2003: 62 ) . Studios, after censoring authorization, strived to re-issue movies from the 1920s and early 1930s, and were forced to do comprehensive cuts. Part of pre-code movies survived integral because they were excessively combative to be re-released, whilemost of them experienced incorrigible harm. Harmonizing to Butter, â€Å"The production codification sought non merely to find what could be portrayed on screen but besides to advance traditional values† ( 2007: 188 ) . Sexual dealingss outside of matrimony were forbidden from being portrayed as attractive or pleasing and after codification constitution they were presented in a manner that would non elicit passion or do them look tolerable ( LaSalle, 2000 ) . Among the undisputedly positive facets of the Code being enforced was the money it saved studios in holding to redact, cut, and alter movies to acquire blessing from the assorted province boards and censors. The money saved was in the 1000000s yearly. Many felt the film industry had ever been morally questionable. The first was a set of â€Å" general rules † which prohibited a image from â€Å" take downing the moral criterions of those who see it † , called for word pictures of the â€Å" right criterions of life † , and in conclusion forbade a image from demoing any kind of ridicule towards a jurisprudence or â€Å" making understanding for its misdemeanor † . All condemnable action had to be punished, and neither the offense nor the felon could arouse understanding from the audience, [ 5 ] or the audience must at least be cognizant that such behaviour is incorrect, normally through â€Å" counterbalancing moral value † . [ 27 ] [ 31 ] Authority figures had to be treated with regard, and the clergy could non be portrayed as amusing characters or scoundrels. Under some fortunes, politicians, constabulary officers, and Judgess could be scoundrels, every bit long as it was clear that those persons portrayed as scoundrels were the exclusions to the regulation. The codification was a set of general rules, which has forbidden anything that is take downing the moral standarts

Resources available to support the project manager Essay

There are many resources available to support the project manager. If any of these resources are not obtained then the project could be completely halted. To make a project successful you will need a suitable budget. Without a suitable budget the project manger will not be able to afford other resources to get the project done. Furthermore, without a good budget, the manger is unable to pay the salaries to the members of the team that have been working on the project. If the cash flow is week the project is unable to proceed or pay of any costs that would come during the project life cycle. Without an efficient budget the project will come to a stop. Stakeholders are very important to the manager. Stakeholders help the project by giving money so that the project can be completed efficiently and cheaply. Staff members who are working on the project are also a very important resource. This will help to support the project manger as the project would be completed faster and with a better standard. The project manger ensures that each staff member has the correct set of skills needed, in order to complete to the project. The manger is should also ensure that each member is determined to do their best and give their best in order to make the project successful. The manger should have the correct equipment in order to efficiently complete the project. Without the correct equipment the project would come to a stop. Equipment is needed in any project. E.g. If your working for a company which makes websites and you are starting a project you would need equipment, like good computers and software’s to make the website. Sources: http://liamthellama.wordpress.com/p2/ and http://prezi.com/tim58j6-vsxo/explain-the-resources-available-to-support-the-project-manag/

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CIS - Essay Example C++ is an extension of the C programming language. It is a high level third-generation programming language that was originally designed for UNIX systems. The term â€Å"C++† was coined in 1983. C is another programming language that was developed by Dennis M. Ritchie in the 1970s at Bell Labs (Codingunit.com, n.d). Bjarne Stroustrup had worked with Simula, the first object-oriented programming language. The idea of creating C++ arose from a need for features that were not possible with other languages at that time. He added object oriented features borrowed from Simula into C to create a new programming language that was fast, efficient and easier to design. C++ is currently used in desktop applications, telecommunication systems, data analysis, simulation, manufacturing systems, clinical systems, irrigation control systems, web applications, graphics design, desktop and mobile operating systems amongst other uses (Stroustrup.com, 2015). iv) Lines four and six have opening and closing braces. These braces indicate the beginning and end of the int main() function definition. The content inside the braces is the actual code that will be executed when this function is called by the program. v) The fifth line is a statement. A statement is any expression that results in the occurrence of an action in the program. The first part of the statement, std::cout, identifies the standard character output device, in this case, the screen. The insertion operator (

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Hurricane Katrina - Essay Example Brinkley consciously limited the book to the first unthinkable week. Beginning on Saturday, August 27, when it first became clear that Katrina was going to strike again in the Gulf Coast after roughing up Florida, he traces the warnings, stories, fecklessness, and missed opportunities through the hurricane's five hours f wrath and the breaching f the levees. His account continues until the following Saturday, September 3, when buses finally reached the convention center and the Superdome to evacuate those stranded. By combining his own experiences during the storm and its aftermath-Brinkley returned to the city to help in rescue efforts after evacuating his family to Houston-with hundreds f interviews with citizens, first responders, and government officials, Brinkley paints a picture alternately heartbreaking, heartwarming, and enraging. The Great Deluge opens with models f excellent planning and action by the likes f the Louisiana Society for the Prevention f Cruelty to Animals (which had its 263 sheltered pets safely moved to Houston by the evening f August 27), the Entergy Corporation (which shut down its nuclear plant once Katrina became a category 3 storm), and Louisiana parish presidents (who issued mandatory evacuation orders to their residents and efficiently obtained special help for those who needed it). Although stories such as these, along with the valiant efforts f many first responders, are welcome doses f things that went right, The Great Deluge is primarily a story f how so much went wrong. Brinkley's meticulous assembly f the facts into a detailed chronology and analysis is devastating at times to virtually everyone in an official role-from New Orleans's mayor, Ray Nagin, to Louisiana's governor, Kathleen Blanco, to the secretary f the Department f Homeland Security, Michael Chertff, to the Federal Emergency Management Agency's "Brownie," to the man who gave him that nickname. And Brinkley pulls no punches: "Every time the Bush administration and the state f Louisiana hesitated, lawyered-up, and read the fine print f Homeland Security procedure, an American died prematurely," he writes. Brinkley's extensive footnotes deepen the sense f reading a cohesive and objective take on a complicated event. As the disaster continues to recede from the forefront f the minds f those who have that luxury and as inevitable election year finger-pointing provides ever more spin about what happened and why, The Great Deluge could hardly be a more timely, important, and effective antidote-to complacency, to poor leadership, and to the lack f accountability. To borrow a phrase: "Brinkley, you did a heckuva job." Brinkley criticized the Bush administration for its lack f reaction during the 72 hours immediately following the hurricane, when rescue is still possible. He also criticized elected officials for caring more about what their lawyers had to say about potential lawsuits than saving those in need. Instead, many victims were evacuated by private organizations or citizens like Jimmy. There was the Cajun Navy, a

Current business issue reflective paper Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Current business issue reflective paper - Essay Example Uncertainty is a subjective phenomenon unlike risk whose probabilities are known (Phillip & Patrick, 2013). Bronwynne, et al., 2005 pointed out that uncertainty involves events in which risk cannot be predicted. When one is anticipating some kind of risk, they tend to be cautious. Thus, risk is complicated and rational, but uncertainty is complex and extra rational. In risk, there are knowable options, steps and opportunities, but uncertainty involves a multiple interactive unknowns (Bronwynne, et al., 2005). Uncertainty may relate to profitability, government policies and regulations, investment, demand, cost, pricing and production. Uncertainty in business tends to be an obstacle in decision making. In order to effectively deal with the issue of uncertainty in business, leaders must possess good leadership characteristics. In relation to dealing with uncertainties leaders are classified into three categories; head only- these leaders rely only on analytical tools to make quick deci sions and thus are not able to balance paradoxes in today’s ambiguous world. Heart only- these leaders are able to establish a strategy through being open to a wide range of opinions. This may hinder them from identifying future trends. Guts only- these leaders believe in their instincts. ... It is advisable to prepare for multiple outcomes other than predicting only one outcome. This is of great help to a business because the planned for outcome may fail to happen and instead another one occurs which had been predicted and planned for, this helps the business leader to be always on their toes and ready for any eventualities (McLoughlin & Aaker, 2010). It also saves the business owner the loss of resources in terms of finances and time. Business leaders should have the knowledge to identify and rely on the predictable elements of the situation. Some situations can be predicted, and this could be of great help to the businesses because one is almost sure that a certain eventuality will occurs and hence proper strategies are put in place to deal with such eventualities (Bronwynne, et al., 2005). Therefore in order to be able to identify the predictable element, one should be very alert and understand their business trends fully. If for example the problem is a natural calam ity like flood, one can predict at what time of the year the floods are experienced. In order to effectively deal with uncertainties in business, it is vital to be agile and to respond quickly to any occurrences. Once an undesirable occurrence befalls the business, leaders should be aware, listen and detect occurrences as they happen. They should adopt the ‘detect and respond’ mechanism in order to effectively tackle the problem. They should also empower and mobilize their people to act fast and decisively. However, this requires managerial and leadership skills. For example, if the uncertainty befalls an organization, the manager should be in a position to

Meaning of Life and Dad Essay Example for Free

Meaning of Life and Dad Essay The most influential person in my life is my dad. The reason why my dad is the most influential person to me is because he is my dad. My dad has been their for me since day 1. He always had my back through everything no matter how much fights we get into he will always be hear for me. My dad always wants to see me succeed in life he doesn’t want to see me fail. He inspires me in so many different way of what he does. A couple of examples of how my dad inspires me is he always helps me through everything he never let me down. He always told me to stand high and never give up on my dreams he was the one who pushed me to succeed to the person who I am now my dad has always been their for me and he will always have my back. He is my hero! My dad is such a hard working man he always told me to get a good job in this economy because you cant go no where in life without a good gob or a good degree in something. Growing up, my father taught me many valuable lessons, specifically to be kind to everyone and to never give up. These simple but important lessons have shaped my life in its entirety. My dad is the kindest man that I have ever met. He never talks bad about others always helps other people, and always tries to do the right thing no matter what the cost to himself. He is kind, thoughtful generous and honest. I attribute much of who I am as a person to my dad and I thank him for his dedication to our family . My dad gave me the confidence to go out and explore the world around me. From these opportunities, I have acquired skills, gained leadership experience and know that I can do anything if I persevere. I know what it means to be accountable for the decision I make and people entrusted to my care. I have stood up to those who were discriminating and demonstrated that respect for each other is important. I have learned in order to achieve a goal one must make a plan, get others on board, secure necessary resources and then go out and DO IT!!! I learned to not listen to the people who say it is impossible, and to get the complainers involved. I have had unique opportunities to train, lead and mentor. I have seen tragedies and poverty and have learned to appreciate what I have: my family friends university and country. None of these life lessons would have be possible without the support and guidance of my father. My dad always told me to follow my dreams and never let go ever since than I am following my dreams thanks to my dad! He is the most influential person to me in my life.

The Ongoing Objectification of Woman

The Ongoing Objectification of Woman Men look, women are looked at, said John Berger in his seminal 1972 documentary series Ways of Seeing, and in this one sentence, Berger summarised the relationship between men and women, and the objectification of women by men. From Susannah being looked at by the Elders, to Manets Luncheon on the Grass, women in art have been continually portrayed as not only objects of desire, but objects to be owned. One might like to think that feminism, and women, have come a long way, not only from the bra-burning days of the 60s and 70s, and the power-suited days of the 80s, that saw women in positions of power in the city, and in politics; even from the days of early suffrage. Yet one has only to look at a daily newspaper, a womans magazine, a Hollywood movie, let alone a mans magazine, to realise that the objectification of women is as rampant (and I use that word deliberately) as it has ever been. Even in the world of High Art, paintings such as Lucien Freuds of a pregnant Kate Moss still portray woman as something that can be looked at, desired, owned. One would most definitely like to think that women have come a long way since Rousseau stated, in typically succinct fashion, that the doll is the peculiar amusement of the females; from whence we see their taste plainly adapted to their destination. One presumes Rousseau was talking about baby dolls, little girl dolls, to be played with and dressed up in pretty clothes, to sit quietly, prettily and well dressed in a corner, unobejcting and unobjectionable, good practise not only for motherhood but womanhood; but he could equally as well have been talking about that most contemporary of dolls, the Barbie curvaceous, well dressed and pretty, with a wardrobe of clothes that would enable her to follow any career, from astronaut to vet, sexy but sexless, epitomised by the most recent addition to the sisterhood, Burqa Barbie, so that all girls feel represented in a globalised 21st century. All girls that are curvaceous and well dressed, pretty and sexless and quiet, anyway. Mary Wollstonecraft, the mother of European feminism, believed that as long as men saw women as trophy wives, and took mistresses, that the oppression of women should continue, yet she did not solely blame men, believing also that women were complicit in their own objectification, and referring to them as clay figures to be moulded by men. Girls, Wollstonecraft believed, were enslaved to men through their social training. With the coming of post-feminism, one could hope that women had finally broken this male-oriented patriarchal perception of them, but it seems in fact to be the reverse. Young women expose more and more of themselves, stating that they are in control, and they may show as much flesh as they wish in this post-feminist world, but one cannot help but think that Wollstonecraft was right women still base their worth on how much a man values them, and on precious little else. Barbie may be a 21st century astronaut, but unless she is busty and beautiful, Ken will not be i nterested, and Barbie will be worthless, both in her own eyes and those of society. In this essay, I propose to explore how feminism and post feminism have influenced my development as an artist, and to question how the medias continued portrayal of women as a commodity has affected other contemporary artists, both positively and negatively. The goal of feminism, said an early spokeswoman, was to change the nature of art itself, to transform culture in sweeping and permanent ways by introducing into it the heretofore suppressed perspective of women. Barbie as a symbol of woman as object can be found not only in contemporary art, but also in contemporary literature; she has moved into everyday speech as a contemptuous comment on glamorous women (Shes nothing but a Barbie doll! is a derisive criticism aimed at a woman perceived to be beautiful but dumb, ironic when one considers how it is precisely this image that is being sold to us by the media!) Mattel may market Barbie as a modern career girl, far more independent than the original 1950s clothes horse, but is she as complicit in the objectification of modern women as Mary Wollstonecraft stated over 200 years ago? The London based photographer Alex Kliszynski would seem to agree with Wollstonecraft, and has directly questioned such attitudes in a body of work that combines the imagery of pornography with Barbie dolls. (http://areyoushaved.net/2009/10/art-culture-nude-human-barbie-dolls/) The instant reaction of the spectator is one of revulsion, a feeling that something is not right. Such a highly sexualised childs toy is obscene, but maybe that is the intended point of the artwork? Barbie is the ultimate commodified, sexist, male-fantasy view of what women should look like. She has a tiny waist, long legs, and enormous breasts. However, oddly, if you think about it, this highly sexualized body actually lacks sexual parts, or the parts of the body we would see if she were fully nude. She has no vagina. Her breasts have no nipples. In addition, Action Man, an idealized, sexualized male specimen, has no penis and no scrotum. By placing a sexless doll in a lascivious and crude position that should show all the sexual organs but doesnt, Kliszynski is making a comment on the dehumanising of women (and men) by media led objectification; it is his intention to call attention to that disconnection , to make the viewers aware of the sexualized images of women and men that Bar bie and Action Man dolls trade in. However, I think there is another, yet more sinister, way of reading Kliszynskis art work. The dolls are a monstrous combination of human and plastic; even the title of the work is Human Barbie Dolls, suggesting an abnormal mixture of the two. It is possible to understand Kliszynskis piece as a comment on the modern phenomena of body dysmorphia, a disorder that causes a person to believe there is something terribly wrong with an aspect of their face or body, and which often leads them into a series of cosmetic surgeries. Kliszynskis human Barbies symbolise this body dysmorphic tendency prevalent in so much of (western) society, this desire to turn the human body into a work of art, a perfection of flesh and plastic to match the abnormal perception of idealised beauty encouraged by the media. In her poem, Barbie Doll, Marge Piercy makes much the same point: This girlchild was born as usual and presented dolls that did pee-pee and miniature GE stoves and irons and wee lipsticks the color of cherry candy. Then in the magic of puberty, a classmate said: You have a great big nose and fat legs. She was healthy, tested intelligent, possessed strong arms and back, abundant sexual drive and manual dexterity. She went to and fro apologizing. Everyone saw a fat nose on thick legs. She was advised to play coy, exhorted to come on hearty, exercise, diet, smile and wheedle. Her good nature wore out like a fan belt. So she cut off her nose and her legs and offered them up. In the casket displayed on satin she lay with the undertakers cosmetics painted on, a turned-up putty nose, dressed in a pink and white nightie. Doesnt she look pretty? everyone said. Consummation at last. To every woman a happy ending. Both Kliszynski and Piercy have recognised the detrimental effect on the mental and physical health of women (and men) of societys objectification of the human body. By constantly portraying an idealised myth of not just the body but the very role of women in society, the media (and sections of the art world) have created a culture which views the body in its natural human state as somehow wrong and abnormal. Equally, both Kliszynski and Piercy have recognised the complicity of women in this culture; the girl in the poem is healthy and intelligent, born as usual, presumably normal in all respects, and yet she accepts the truth of her low value in society because she is not perceived as physically perfect. Only in death, with her nose cut off and a cosmetically enhanced putty nose in place instead, can she be seen as pretty. Her value as a strong and useful member of society is non-existent in a world that refuses to see past her face. Kliszynski himself has said that the main body of my work is a number of human-dolls that aim to raise questions about the numerous images of the objectified and idealised body that we see in the mass mediaà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦I came to make this work as a reaction to the lowest-common-denominator approach to masculinity taken by the media which serves and perpetuates the lad or raunch elements of our culture. Curiously this lad/raunch culture seems also to be embraced by many young women; a phenomenon which seems contrary to a properly progressive understanding of gender and identity in a post-feminist era. (http://lostinasupermarket.com/2010/09/barbie-porn-seriously/) Lad magazines such as Maxim, Stuff and various other UK-based magazines intended for teenage boys and young men are notorious for endorsing a highly commodified view of the world men and boys are encouraged to buy lots of bling like cars, stereo components and expensive suits etc. By their very placement in such magazines, in glamorous soft-porn poses, female models become as much merchandise as the gadgets featured in the articles; and as the reader must own the right phone to attain status, so he must have the right woman. Yet this attitude of the body as commodity is ironically trapping men as much as women, and both sexes are in a crisis of identity. Men are met on a daily basis with conflicting images of themselves, from the traditional Action Man role of husband, father, provider, patriarch, to the more sensitive, metro sexual Ken, whose status, like that of Barbie, is defined by how he looks and what he owns. This crisis is as important for men as for women; statistics show that young male suicides are increasing, there is a high rise in cases of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder in males, crime statistics are rising, divorce rates are going through the roof, and with mothers routinely given custody of the children even the role of fatherhood itself has come into question, exacerbated by the rising number of fertility clinics and the ability for women to so easily be single parents. Role models such as Ken and Action Man are without doubt as harmful to young men as a role model such as Barbie can be to young women. No longer seen as breadwinners, or the head of the family in a patriarchal society, men are frequently represented in the media by characters such as Homer Simpson, a chauvinistic, ignorant man who is depicted as very lazy and obsessed with food; his son Bart, often cruel to his sister, is discourteous and ill behaved. He alternative is often portrayed as Ken, an idealized, de-sexualized male with only the acquisition of material items his goal, fast cars and fashion his only interests. Even television shows like Sex and the City imply that men are just there for the sexual gratification of women. It portrays men as tactless, stupid beings that are only there for female entertainment and pleasure. These negative portrayals are as damaging to both genders as the comparative attitudes to women, rooted as they are in gender objectification and the denial of identity. Alternatively, could we welcome this shake-up of traditional gender images? Could it not be that multiplicities of roles are now establishing themselves in modern society? Toys such as Action Man often stereotype men in aggressive roles, and this convention has been questioned in the work of Susan Hiller, who explores social conditioning and attitudes to childhood in her work Punch and Judy. Punch and Judy looks closely at the brutality of slapstick comedy. First filming segments of live Punch and Judy shows the artist then transposed these images on the walls of a square room inviting the viewer to stand in the room with the puppets images looming over them, the puppets acting out violently as so often seen in their performances. Hiller examines how such stereotypical role-play in toys reinforces the assumptions placed on boys and men and how they should act in society. Where feminism fought against such patriarchal, capitalist belief systems, post-feminism seems to be buying right into the raunch culture that Kliszynski highlights. I would define Raunch culture as the whole juvenile, laddish culture that includes the lads magazines as well as strip clubs, prostitution and the celebration of prostitution, highly sexualized adverts and a general attitude that whats best about female empowerment is that more men get to see more women naked. Berger referred to it as the male gaze, Kliszynski as raunch culture, but I believe they are very similar, and it seems to be embraced by many young women, who accept whole-heartedly the entire condescending nonsense of girl power. According to Wollstonecraft, men have widened what should be merely a biological gap of physical differences into a sociological gap: But not content with this natural pre-eminence, men endeavour to sink us still lower, merely to render us alluring objects for the moment. Women, it follows, cannot help but be intoxicated by the adoration which men, under the influence of their senses, pay them. Has Barbie, in representing the most materialistic aspects of modern day culture, encouraging a stereotypical image of womanhood, become a remorseless goddess of modern society? A doll without any social conscience (or conscious), reliant solely on material belongings to bring her happiness, worshipped by millions, representative of a culture that objectifies and vilifies women, no aspect of her suggests any form of spirituality, or higher morality. When Mary Wollstonecraft accused women of their own complicity in this stereotypical view of their gender she caused ripples of anger and irritation down the centuries. How could a so-called feminist turn on her own sex with such accusations? And yet, when one takes the time to think about it, one can see how right she was. Girls play with Barbie dolls bought for them by mothers and aunts, and will, to echo Rousseau, grow up to give Barbie dolls to their daughters, thus fulfilling their destiny. They are complicit in the encouragement of stereotypical values. But what is the alternative? A girl may play with the stereotypical toys of girlhood such as dollies and prams, all pink and sparkly, mass marketed products imposed on them by a performative oriented society, or she may play with the male version of such consumer items, Action Man, cars, trains, guns . . . But what message is actually being sent? If a girl plays with Barbie dolls, she is viewed with contempt for being a typical girl; if she plays with stereotypical boys toys, she attains value in the eyes of society, for being more like a boy. No matter what she does, Barbie girl can never achieve social value by being a girl, and post-feminism has been complicit in such social values. Consuming Passions  was published in the 80s, author Judith Williamsons theory is hardly common knowledge, most likely because it is threatening. She deduces that, contrary to the ideal posed by Mattel and  Barbie, the desirable shape for a woman . . . is that of a  boy.   The highly idealised Barbie has not been without competitors, however. In 1998, Anita Roddick started an Anti-Barbie campaign, under the guise of self -esteem. Roddick started marketing posters of a doll called Ruby: The Real Deal, with posters in the UK shops she owned, all depicting images of the generously proportioned doll with the attached slogan: There are 3 billion women who dont look like supermodels and only 8 who do. With the intention of challenging stereotypes of beauty and countering the pervasive influence of the cosmetics industry, and with a tongue in cheek approach, the underlying message was far more serious and could easily be applied to the stereotypical image of woman and the way western culture objectifies women. Ruby started a worldwide debate about body image and self-esteem, but she was not universally loved. In the United States, the toy company Mattel sent a cease-and-desist order, demanding the images of Ruby were removed from American shop windows because she was making Barbie look bad, an admission surely, that Barbies impossible to achieve figure was detrimental to girls in comparison to the more realistic Ruby? In Hong Kong, posters of Ruby were banned on the MTR (Mass Transit Railway) because the authorities were concerned they would offend passengers. Like Barbie, Ruby was a de-sexualised toy, having no nipples, genitalia or pubic hair; other advertisements on the MTR whic h showed surgically enhanced, partially dressed female models, were allowed to stay. It is hard not to jump to the conclusion that it was the realistic portrayal of the female body that was offensive (and to whom? the male commuters?); in a world where the female body is perceived to be a purchasable status symbol, the male buyers were presumably offended by the depreciation in value of their idealised fantasy. Feminist artist Helen Chadwick (1954-1996) made many works that dealt directly with the role and image of women in society. In Ego Geometria Sum:The Laborers X created in 1984, she had large replicas of childrens wooden bricks transposed with images of her naked self. One may read many meanings into this artwork: is Chadwick struggling with the weight of her own image? By superimposing her naked image onto a childs brick, is she suggesting that she is nothing but a plaything, a toy? She appears to compare herself to a troll doll, held by the hair in a disembodied fist with an inane grin on its face. The troll doll is ugly and deformed looking, and Chadwick is implying that this is how society views her, and womanhood in general, from childhood onwards, if one does not conform to how society wishes one to be. All is not without hope though; Chadwick also portrays a door on one side of the brick, suggestive not only of closure, but also of the potential to open, to allow something in, or something out; a means of escape. As a Jungian archetype, the door also is representative of the feminine, with all the implications of a symbolic opening. In this artwork, is Chadwick exploring issues of entrapment and escape? Several of her works address the role and image of women in society using a wide range of materials, such as flowers, chocolate and meat. She questioned the role of the female body in art as a decorative object; just as decorative and aesthetic ideas about art themselves had been questioned in the 20th century. In 1990, she worked again on themes of sexual identity and gender with her Cibachrome transparencies entitled Eroticism which depict two brains side by side. On the surface, this is yet another apparently simple, if stunning, piece of work, but like the brain itself, this piece contains a multiplicity of layers, waiting to be explored and teased out. The work shows two brains, side by side, mirroring each other. On the sides adjoining, the brains are enlivened by what appears to be blue sparks, or flashes, suggesting brain activity. According to The Wordsworth Dictionary of Symbolism, blue is the colour of the intellect, and of spirituality; it is the medium of truth. In Eroticism, Chadwick is playing with the idea of a meeting of two minds, an attraction based on the intellect and the emotions. Yet we also associate the colour blue with something a little bit naughty, a bit risque, like a blue movie, and I would suggest that Chadwick was also bearing in mind the idea that the brain is often referred to as the largest sexual organ in the body. For Chadwick, in this piece at least, it is the attraction of two people based on a meeting of i ntellect and commonality that is important, not the outward appearance so vital to society. In the 1790s, when Mary Wollstonecraft was writing A Vindication of The Rights of Women , she argued for the need for more civil rights for women, a cause which she believed could only be achieved by permitting women a better education. She argued that a woman was capable of any intellectual feat that a man was provided with and that her early training should not brainwash her into deference to men. Wollstonecraft believed that men discourage women from achieving the same education that they receive routinely, and as long as women are denied this education, they can never hope to achieve equality with men. She builds on this lack of equal education for women in her argument adding that all men (contemporary to her) have a general lack of respect. Two hundred years later, in the 1970s, women were still fighting to achieve this basic level of respect and equality in the academic and artistic worlds, and it was the 1970s that saw the beginnings of a new art movement, the Contemporary Feminist Art Movement. The movement was inspired by demands for social, economic and political change and by the desire of female artists to try and force art galleries and museums to establish a fair representation of their work; there were very few female art teachers at that time, though the majority of students were female. It was common and widely accepted for art exhibitions to contain the works of men only, women being discriminated against openly, with some having to face the double discriminatory blow of also being black. Faith Ringgold (b.1930), an American artist, was told she could only exhibit in the museums devoted to African American art after all the black male artists had had their shows. By the 1970s, feminists and artists had started forming consciousness awareness groups that demonstrated at galleries and museums to expose some of these sexist practices, and opened galleries together for more exposure of their works. With feminist artists wanting to go further than equal representation, their works were often full of political and social content crying out for political change. The womens movement in America had one such artist by the name of Judy Chicago. Born in 1939, Chicago often reflected on issues relating to the lack of female representation in her work, saying Because we are denied knowledge of our history, we are deprived of standing upon each others shoulders and building upon each others hard earned accomplishments. Many female artists voiced these opinions at that time, wishing to transform traditional fine art and sculpture to include feminist awareness, with many exploring the female body with the intention of reclaiming the sexualised images that had been created by the male artist that preceded them. Chicagos piece Dinner Party called out for both art critics and establishments (and the Establishment?) To readdress the fact that so many female artists had been and were being excluded from art history texts used to educate the (largely female) art students currently attending the art education. This large work depicts a banquet, the settings embroidered representations of the vulva in a style appropriate to the women being represented, women Chicago wished to honour, with a further 999 women engraved in gold on the floor tiles. The geometric shape of this piece is fascinating, with the table laid out at a triangle, representing the tri-partite nature of women, the maiden, the mother and the crone. Indeed, an upside down triangle has long been used in paganism to represent the feminine. This work has gone a long way in encouraging women artists to reclaim their identity in representing the female form, and readdress the frequent degradation of female genitalia previously represented in male-created art. The Dutch artist Christina Camphausen (b. 1953) is another example of a female artist intent on reclaiming for women the representation of the female genitalia, publishing a book of her work with the vulva as sole subject. Entitled Yoni Portraits, it is filled with delicate drawings revealing the vulva in all its beauty and variety, images that are sometimes realistic and sometimes symbolic. Taken from ancient Sanskrit, the word Yoni refers to the vulva and womb and better describes femininity than its clinical counterpart (vagina) or its crude pornographic variants (cunt); in Indias sacred language it carries an inherent respect for this intimate part of a womans body which is lacking in English. In the books accompanying texts, the artist makes clear that there is nothing about the Yoni to be ashamed of. Rather, it is a body-part which in many cultures has had very different connotations of power, beauty, fertility and delight. Of her motivation, Christina says: With my work, I endeavour to assist in restoring the Yoni to her rightful and original place of honour, and to induce everyone to regard her with respect, to recognize her beauty and magical power. Though the last decades make it seem that our modern societies are sexually liberated, there still rests a taboo on this intimate part of our bodies. In general, women enjoy more freedom than they used to have, yet it surely is no advance in self-determination that many contemporary women have their intimate, lower lips corrected in order to conform to some artificial standard prescribed by cosmetic surgeons or professional nude models in glossy magazines. To make artwork with the vagina as your subject is still a very brave act, as it is a subject that is often considered inappropriate and generally thought of within the context of pornography, and, in almost all cases, for the exclusive pleasure of men. Many feminists have attempted to remove these prurient connotations by encouraging us to consider vaginas, something not to be ashamed of, but as powerful and expressive components to be proudly protected as an assertive and positive manifestation of our being. Exhibitions are now starting to show that this has changed dramatically in recent years, with many artists who have incorporated imagery of the Vagina in their works exhibiting together. One such exhibition, organized by Francis M. Naumann and David Nolan, and entitled The Visible Vagina took place on January 28, 2010 at the David Nolan Gallery in New York and included artworks by people ranging from Judy Chicago and Nancy Grossman to Robert Mapplethorpe and Pablo Picasso. The most interesting aspect for me is that there was such a strong male presence in the exhibition, and indeed it was arranged by men, a potent sign of how things have progressed. The most striking work in the exhibition for myself has to be the work of Sarah Davis and the piece Britney (Notorious), for amongst over one hundred artworks, very few of which objectify women or suggest a salacious use of imagery, this piece, a painting identical to a paparazzi-type photograph taken of the music star, hovers between art and porn; indeed, in its representation of both, it beggars the question of how art and porn can be addressed within feminist issues. If we accept that art is intended to stimulate the spectator on many levels, academically and emotionally, and that porn is needed to stimulate on a purely sexual level, I wonder how this transformation from paparazzi photograph and all the connotations of furtiveness, spying and secretiveness to painting can alter ones perception. I would like to believe that the artist who views Britney Spears as a strong, confident, self-made woman is a feminist who has staged the initial photograph to reclaim her identity by exposing her vagina just as in Yoni Portraits, believing there is nothing to be ashamed of by showing the power, beauty, fertility and delight this body part represents. Often in the media gaze, Spears is used as an example to criticise young women today, nothing but a Barbie doll. Her abilities as a mother, her career and social life are frequently held up to public scrutiny. Men that are in the public gaze however, may be criticised for their affairs, heir drug dependency, their fights etc., yet rarely for their dress code or indeed for their roles or abilities as fathers. This is a gender bias that has become commonplace and widely accepted. In addition, when Spears chose to wear a revealing dress and decorate her body with piercings and tattoos, the tabloids turned on her viciously, and accused her of mental illness when she publicly shaved her hair off. I feel though, that Spears was sending a message, via the media, about her sense of identity and her value as a woman. By shaving her hair off Spears was questioning the male perception of femaleness and femininity; she was a Rapunzel trapped by her beauty in a tower created by the male gaze. The only way to take control of the situation and to escape, was, like Rapunzel, to chop off all her hair and reassert her own identity away from social expectations and the medias critical portrayal of women. In Ways of Seeing, John Berger explores the difference between nudity and nakedness, suggesting that when one is nude, the spectator (and there must be one) merely sees the human body unclothed. When one is naked, the spectator (even if that is only oneself) sees the real ess ence of the person. Nakedness is far more intimate than nudity. When Spears cut off all her hair it was as if she had removed a disguise, and showed herself to the world fully naked, expressing her inner self. It is this aspect that Davis has picked up on in her piece of art: Britney Spears as a model of sex positive feminism, the un-Barbie goddess of post-feminism. Sex positive feminism, also known as sexually liberal feminism or sex-radical feminism began as a movement in the 1980s. Many women became involved in a direct response to the efforts of anti-porn feminists such as Andrea Dworkin, as they argued that pornography was the centre of feminist theory for womens oppression. This period is known as the feminist sex wars, a time of heated debate between anti-porn feminists and sex-positive feminists, between the notions of the sex industry as an abusive and violent environment for women and the beliefs in womens ability to choose to be highly sexual beings and raises the question of who is exploiting who? When Spears posed for a statue by American sculptor Daniel Edwards (b.1965) for the pro-life movement, she was once again steeped in the controversy of is it art or is it porn? Entitled Monument to Pro-Life this work is a full size sculpture of a naked Britney Spears in childbirth. The sculpture shows Spears on all fours on a bearskin rug, her mouth slightly open and her eyelids heavy, looking as if she is about to cry out. There is no indication of pain or pleasure; it is not at all indicative of sexual provocation or pornography. Her hands lie wrapped around either side of the head of the bear, as if she is using it to act as a medium to the spirit world communicating with the animalistic urges childbirth conjures up. Yet the media has criticised this piece, stating that: Britneys in a position that most would sooner associate with getting pregnant than with giving birth. I believe that in some ways things have deteriorated rather than progressed: the beauty industry and the porn industry, in their own sometimes-converging ways, have caused a lot of that. Going back to the early 70s, as women began to enter the workforce in larger numbers, some of that earning power was used against them by aggressive beauty product marketing. The result has been an increasing focus in the last three decades on dieting, an explosion in both sexes

Applying Criminological Theories to Cyber Crime

Applying Criminological Theories to Cyber Crime Cybercrime The internet is perhaps today’s most influential technological invention and continues to change daily life for virtually everyone on Earth. Millions of people are plugged into cyberspace, and thousands more enter the online world every day. Not only has the Internet revolutionized the way we interact with others and learn, it has forever changed the way we live. As internet and computer technologies continue to thrive; criminals have found ways to use these technologies as a tool for their deviant acts. Cybercrimes are a new breed of crime that are perpetrated using computers, or are otherwise related to them. Cyber crime is different and more heinous than conventional crime in that the crime is committed through an electronic medium which makes it difficult to track and identify the criminal. The most common types of cybercrime include cyber fraud, defamation, hacking, bullying, and phishing. Within the field of criminology, a number of theories exist that attempt to explain why some people engage in deviant behavior, while others abstain from it. Although, these theories were originally meant to explain crimes committed in the ‘real world’, they can still be applied to cybercrime. These theories include social learning theory, low self-control theory, general strain theory, frustration aggression hypothesis, routine activity theory, and situational crime prevention theory. This paper will analyze aspects of the above theories, for the purpose of seeing which best explains the cause of cybercrime. Akers’ social learning theory is a general theory of crime and has been used to explain a diverse array of criminal behaviours. This work embodies within it four fundamental premises that include differential association, definitions, differential reinforcement and imitation (Burruss et al., 2012). Social learning theory is based on the idea that individuals develop motivations and skills to commit crime through the association with or exposure to others who are involved in crime (i.e., associating with deviant peers). Akers’s proposed that this exposure to deviant behavior provided individuals with definitions that are seen as either approving of or neutralizing the behaviour. These definitions become rationalizations for criminals when committing a crime. Differential reinforcement refers to the rewards that are associated with a particular criminal behavior. This criminal behavior is originally learned through the process of imitation, which occurs when individuals l earn actions and behavior by watching and listening to others. So, when an individual commits a crime, he or she is mimicking the actions that they have seen others engage in (Burruss et al., 2012). In regards to cybercrime, research has found that social learning theory can explain the development and ongoing issue of software piracy. In their study of software piracy, Burruss et al, found that individuals who associate with software piracy peers learn and subsequently accept the deviant conduct. Software piracy requires a certain degree of skills and knowledge to access and deviant peers to originally learn these skills from. Furthermore, the deviant individuals rationalize their criminal behavior and help in the fostering of a network that connects and teaches other individuals these rationalizations and behavior. The study also suggested that individuals are more likely to engage in software piracy when they see others experiences positive reinforcement for their participation ( Burruss et al., 2012). Not only does social control theory explain for software piracy, elements of this theory can be attributed in other cybercrimes. For example in any crime, the rationalizations and skills must be learned and behavior is reinforced through the association and observation of others. Thus, the main idea behind social learning theory is that we become who we are based on our surroundings and this explanation can be used to explain cybercrime. While social learning theory emphasizes the importance of external factors that influence criminal involvement, low self-control theory posits that low self-control is a key factor underlying criminality. This theory was originally developed by criminologists Michael Gottfredson and Travis Hirschi. They proposed that their self-control theory can explain all types of crimes, all the time (Burruss et al., 2012). Individuals with low self-control were characterized with being risk taking, short-sighted, impulsive and prefer simple and easy tasks. These characteristics inhibit an individuals ability to accurately calculate the consequences of deviance. According to this theory, crime is seen as a means of obtaining immediate gratification, and the ability to delay such short-term desires is linked to self-control. As such, those with a propensity for criminal involvement are thought to lack sufficient self-control. Also, people with low self-control act impulsively- without much thought and based on what they are feeling at the moment. This makes them risk takers as they do not consider the consequences of their actions. Finally, low self-control people are focused on themselves and lack empathy towards others (Burruss et al., 2012). According to Gottfredson and Hirschi, low self-control originates in early socialization when parents are ineffective in their parenting. Therefore, neglecting and uncaring parents are likely to fail to socialize their child to properly delay gratification, care about the feelings of others, and restrain their impulses. As a result, children with low levels of self-control end up being more prone to crime, and their criminal propensity continues into later life. The characteristics of low self-control can be applied to some simple forms of cybercrime, including software piracy. In their study, Burruss et al , stated that levels of low self-control are directly related to the act of software piracy. For instance, an individual is likel y to perform software piracy because they are impulsive and unable to wait to purchase a copy of the software. These individuals are not likely to be empathetic to the copyright holder and neglect any responsibility. Further, these individuals are likely to be attracted to the thrill and ease of engaging in software piracy. The study also found that low self-control does have an effect on software piracy and that social learning theory measures (i.e., associating with deviant peers and positive attitudes toward software piracy) condition this effect. Thus, from the characteristics of low self-control, those with low levels of self-control are likely to participate in deviant behavior both on and offline because of their desire of immediate gratification. Robert Agnew’s general strain theory proposes that strain leads to negative emotions, which may lead to a number of outcomes, including delinquency. The specific strains discussed in the theory include the failure to achieve positively valued goals (e.g., money), the removal of positively valued stimuli (e.g., loss of a valued possession), and the presentation of negatively valued stimuli (e.g., physical abuse) (Patchin Hinduja, 2011). The first strain looks at the gap between the expectations of the individual and what they actually achieve, which leads to disappointment and resentment. The second type of strain is caused when a positively valued stimulus is removed and the result is delinquency. This criminal behavior may present itself as an attempt to ease or replace the stimuli. The final type of strain occurs when confronted with negative stimuli. This may cause delinquency as a means to terminate or avoid the negative stimuli (Patchin Hinduja, 2011). According to Agne w, strain does not directly cause crime but rather promotes negative emotions like aggression and frustration. This is directly in conjunction with the frustration-aggression hypothesis by Yale university psychologists. They believed that anger comes before frustration, and frustration can manifest into both aggressive and non-aggressive behavior (Runions, 2013). In turn, these negative emotions necessitate coping responses as a way to relieve internal pressure. Coping via illegal behaviour and violence may be especially true for adolescents because of their limited resources and inability to escape frustrating environments. In their article, Patchin Hinduja, concluded that general strain theory can be used to explain illegal behavior such as cyber bullying among youth. Cyber bullying is a serious and growing problem that occurs when youth use electronics to harass or intimidate their peers in a deliberate attempt to inflict direct or indirect harm. There are some unique elements in the digital setting that are not present offline, such as: anonymity, constant connectivity, and permanence. This new technology allows victims to be attacked at anytime and the anonymity of cyber bullies makes it difficult to identify them. Agnew argues that strain makes people feel angry, frustrated, depressed, and essentially creates pressure for corrective action on the part of the victim. In response to this pressure, victims react by wanting to take a corrective action as a means to alleviate the bad feelings. Consequently for some victims, cyber bullying is one corrective action that adolescents might take to mitigate the bad feelings (Patchin Hinduja, 2011). Together, general strain theory and frustration aggression hypothesis, provide an understanding of how pe ople, especially youth, respond and deal with negative strain, whether it may be to bully others or do deviant acts to alleviate the strain. Routine Activity Theory was developed by Cohen and Felson to originally fill the shortcomings in existing models that failed to adequately address crime rate trends since the end of World War II. They suggested that the behavior of most victims is repetitive and predictable and that the likelihood of victimization is dependent on three elements: motivated offenders, suitable targets, and the absence of capable guardians (Reyns, 2013). The motivated offender is someone willing to commit a crime if an opportunity presents itself. A suitable target is one that the motivated offender values (e.g., credit card information). In addition to these, a capable guardian includes anything that obstructs the offender’s ability to acquire the target (e.g., antivirus, encryption). With the increasing use of the internet, criminals have found new opportunities to victimize their targets on a whole new platform. Researchers have found some support for applying the tenets of routine activity th eory to the study of cybercrime (Van Wilsem, 2011). People whose regular activities place them in situations where they have the possibility of interacting with offenders are at an increased risk of being victimized. Research has found that the amount of time spent online, more use of internet banking and online purchases, and risky online behavior make people more suitable to offenders. Individuals with these actions are more likely to be targeted for identity theft. Furthermore, the lack of antivirus and network security (capable guardians) is associated with more victimization (Reyns, 2013). So, routine activity theory can be used, to an extent, to explain certain types of cybercrime. Situational crime prevention is a crime prevention strategy that addresses specific crimes by manipulating the environment in a way that increases the risk to the offender, while reducing the potential reward for committing the crime (Hinduja Kooi, 2013). It is rooted in rational choice theory, routine activities theory, and crime pattern theory. Like other prevention measures, situational prevention focuses on reducing crime opportunities rather than the criminals. This theory differs from other criminological theories in that they do not look at why the offender did the crime, but rather how to prevent crime from altering the physical surroundings where the crime takes place. Essentially, it seeks to make the criminal act more difficult to commit in the first place. Like other primary crime prevention measures, situational prevention tends to focus on reducing crime opportunities rather than on the characteristics of criminals or potential criminals. In regards to cybercrime, ther e are ways in which space can be designed to prevent crime through: target hardening, access control, deflecting offenders, and controlling facilitators (Hinduja Kooi, 2013). Target hardening is the actual physical (or digital) barriers that reduce chances of crime, such as encrypting sensitive information. Access control involves strategies to prevent potential offenders from areas that a crime can occur. This includes photo ID cards, passwords, and check-in booths. Deflecting offenders is concerned with initiatives to move potential offenders away from their crime targets. For example, storing valuable data off-site would deter potential offenders from searching for it. Controlling facilitators involves checking elements that may cause a crime, such as doing background checks on employees or restricting unauthorized installations on computers (Hinduja Kooi, 2013). Research has found that situational crime prevention strategies can be used to reduce cyber stalking and other onlin e victimization crimes. Also, prevention strategies can be applied InfoSec to effectively protect the assets of organizations from being exploited online (Hinduja Kooi, 2013). Theoretically, if used effectively, the principles of situational crime prevention seem to be able to prevent most types of cyber crime. Computers and the internet have become common place in today’s society. This new technology has resulted in the development of a new form of crime, cybercrime. I think that criminal behavior cannot be explained entirely by one theory; it requires the combination of various theories. Different aspects of each theory can be used in conjunction to compensate for what each individual theory failed to explain. For example, social learning theory believes that crime is learned through association with deviant peers and research has already shown that there is a relationship between the number of deviant peers an individual has and his or her participation in software piracy (Burruss et al., 2012). But, researchers have not examined whether social learning theory applies to all types of cybercrimes or just certain cybercrimes. On the other hand, low self control theory asserts that low self control is the cause of crime all the time. This may be true for some criminals, but many crim inals, like those involved in white collar crimes, do not adhere to the principles of low self control. However, while self-control theory is useful in explaining why individuals may act in a certain way, it does not explain the situations that must be met for a crime to occur. Routine activity theory describes the situational factors that must be present for a crime to occur. It is more difficult to apply this theory to cybercrime because the offender and victim do not necessarily have to meet for the crime to occur. Similar to low self control theory, strain theory maintains that when an individual cannot achieve his or her goals, he or she experiences strain and as a result they may turn to crime (Patchin Hinduja, 2011). But, researchers could further study whether an individual’s strain in the ‘real world’ affects their deviant behavior in the virtual world. So, an individual’s low self-control and negative strain combined with his or her deviant asso ciations and regular activities can increase an individual’s risk of being victimized online. Future studies of cybercrime victimization may draw benefit from using a combination of these theories to explore the problem. Cybercrime research will be important to our understanding of crime as our society becomes more and more dependent on technology. References Burruss, George W., Bossler, Adam M. And Holt, Thomas J. (2012). Assessing the mediation of a fuller social learning model on low self-control’s influence on software piracy. Crime and Delinquency, 59(5), 1157-1184 Hinduja, Sameer and Kooi, Brandon. (2013). Curtailing cyber and information security vulnerabilities through situational crime prevention. Security Journal, 26(4), 383-402 Patchin, Justin W. and Hinduja, Sameer. (2011). Traditional and non-traditional bullying among youth: A test of general strain theory. Youth Society, 43(2), 727-751. Reyns, Bradford W. (2013). Online routines and identity theft victimization: Further explaining routine activity theory beyond direct-control offenses. Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency, 50(2), 216-238 Runions, Kevin C. (2013). Toward a conceptual model of motive and self-control in cyber-aggression: Rage, reward and recreation. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 42(5), 751-771. Van Wilsem, Johan. (2011). Worlds tied together? Online and non-domestic routine activities and their impact on digital and traditional threat victimization. European Journal of Criminology, 8(2), 115-127

Phases :: Real Reality Philosophy Philosophical Essays

Phases Phases Reality is a difficult term to comprehend. The meaning itself is quite simple: What is real? The idea of reality is significantly more complex: What makes something real? This is the sort of question that depends greatly on the individuals interpretation of the reality that surrounds them. In the novel Blood Music, Greg Bear shares his thoughts on how people within a rapidly changing reality are affected. Bear explores several theories that help answer questions like: What if reality as we know it could be altered? How would this changing reality affect the people involved? Also the fundamental question, what is real? Bear uses quite a large assortment of actual facts in this novel. His research in the subject of biology helps to add a greater feel of realism to the story. Bear even went as far as to break the novel up into phases to help the reader further understand the happenings in the novel. The phases as a whole can be thought of as a sort of outline for the reader, a st ep-by-step guide to the transitions from one reality to another. Each phase can be thought of as a matrix. A matrix is a place in space and time that is constant and stable enough to be considered a reality. The words matrix and reality can consistently be used interchangeably since their meanings are basically the same. Bears choice in phases is no coincidence. Since Blood Music deals with the topic of developing biological change in human beings, Bear appropriately chose the five phases of cell development also known as the cell cycle. The novel follows these five phases to a tee. It is as though he resolved to create a story that was led by the predetermined phases. This discovery would lead many readers to think more likely than not, Greg Bear sat down with the phases in mind long before a single sentence of the story was ever written. The five phases or realities of the novel are: interphase, prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase. In the very beginning of the book, the first and last thing the reader will come across is the interphase. Very much like this terms biological meaning, the interphase can be thought of as a state of uninterrupted being. In other words, there is no change happening in this phase. This phase appears twice in Blood Music, in the beginning and at the end, yet they only make up a total of two and a half pages.

Life and Work of Langston Hughes Essays -- Hughes Writer Poet Biograph

Life and Work of Langston Hughes Early Years James Mercer Langston Hughes was born in Joplin, Missouri, on February 1, 1902, to James Nathaniel Hughes, a lawyer and businessman, and Carrie Mercer (Langston) Hughes, a teacher. The couple separated shortly thereafter. James Hughes was, by his son’s account, a cold man who hated blacks (and hated himself for being one), feeling that most of them deserved their ill fortune because of what he considered their ignorance and laziness. Langston’s youthful visits to him there, although sometimes for extended periods, were strained and painful. He attended Columbia University in 1921-22, and when he died he, left everything to three elderly women who had cared for him in his last illness, and Langston was not even mentioned in his will.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Hughes mother went through protracted separations and reconciliations in her second marriage (she and her son from this marriage would live with him off and on in later years. He was raised by alternately by her, by his maternal grandmother, and, after his grandmother’s death, by family friends. By the time he was fourteen, he had lived in Joplin; Buffalo; Cleveland; Lawrence, Kansas; Mexico City; Topeka, Kansas; Colorado Springs; Kansas City; and Lincoln, Illinois. In 1915, he was class poet of his grammar-school graduating class in Lincoln. From 1916 to 1920, he attended Central High School in Cleveland, where he was a star athlete, wrote poetry and short stories (and published many of them in the Central High Monthly), and on his own read such modern poets as Paul Laurence Dunbar, Edgar Lee Masters, Vachel Lindsay, and Carl Sandburg. His classmates were for the most part the children of European immigrants, who treated him largely without discrimination and introduced him to leftist political ideas.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  After graduation in 1920, he went to Mexico to teach English for a year. While on the train to Mexico, he wrote the poem â€Å"the Negro Speaks of Rivers†, which was published in the June 1921 issue of The Crisis, a leading black publication. After his academic year at Columbia, he lived for a year in Harlem, embarked on a six-month voyage as a cabin boy on a merchant freighter bound for West Africa. After its return, he took a job on a ship sailing to Holland.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   After being robbed on a train in Italy and working his passage back to New York in November of 1924,... ... Works Sited Rampersad, Arnold. The Life of Langston Hughes Volume 1:1902-1941. New York: Oxford University Press, 1986 Berry, Faith. Langston Hughes Before and Beyond Harlem Connecticut: Lawrence Hill and Company Publishers, 1983 OJO-ADE, Femi. Of Dreams Deferred Dead Or Alive African Perspectives on African-American Writers Connecticut: Greenwood Press, 1996 Hatch, James V. Lost plays of the Harlem Renaissance 1920-1940 Michigan: Wayne State University Press, 1996 Cullen, Countee. Caroling Dusk New York: Haper and Brothers Publishers, 1997 Short Poems by Langston Hughes HOMESICK BLUES De railroad bridge’s A sad song in de air. De railroad bridge’s A sad song in de air Ever time de trains pass I wants to go somewhere SONG FOR A DARK GIRL Way down South Dixie (break the heart of me) They hung my young black lover To a cross roads tree Way down South in Dixie (break the heart of me) I asked the white lord Jesus What was the use of prayer. Way down in South Dixie (break the heart of me) Love is a naked shadow On a gnarled and naked tree SUICIDE’S NOTE The calm, Cool face of the river Asked me for a kiss.

Nature of Poverty Essay

The nature of poverty can be described in many ways. The obvious way to explain poverty is the lack of income. However, in the deeper meaning, poverty also includes those who lack of security, healthcare, power, and other basic necessities. Poverty can be categorised in terms of absolute poverty and relative poverty. Absolute poverty is household based measure by income per year under a statistic developed by government which will aid those who are poor by giving them money depending on the number of members in the family on a yearly basis. While, relative poverty focus on people’s living with no statistic. For instance, if a family has 10 members but they have only 3 cars, they can be regarded as poor. Nevertheless, there are three common methods that use to measure the level of poverty. The first method defines poverty as a lack of income, which can be measured by World Bank. The absolute poverty for this case is a cut up point above or below the certain amount of income. Yet, this method has a major drawback. Since it focuses solely on income and ignoring other important factors such as social well-being or the general welfare of people, this method fails to provide the whole aspect of poverty. Secondly, UNDP measures poverty in terms of the lack of capability. It is known as Human Poverty Index that indicates the standard of living of the people in the country, which are life expectancy, life satisfaction, and footprint. This method provide not only deeper but also broader ways of measuring and assessing poverty. It looks pass the income factor and takes into consideration the non-monetary aspects, which generate the more well-rounded information and results. However, there are some critics that this method cannot truly measure the level of the poor since statistics and numerals are unable to measure people’s feelings. It is said that we cannot know how others feel unless we walk in their shoes, therefore, in order to get the accurate result, living with the poor is required. Lastly, poverty as a social exclusion is mentioned by Robert Chambers about the nature of poverty. Chambers introduces the bottom-up theory, which suggests that people should actually work with the rural poor who lack of power to speak out, security, and live with fears. Therefore, the approach is carried out to get an in depth understanding of what are the real meanings of poverty by associating directly with the poor. By this view, Chambers tends to provide qualitative method while other methods are quantitative based. Although this method  provides useful information of the poor, there are few flaws to be considered. Because the outcome is mainly based on qualitative methods such as verbal communication, there is a high tendency that the outcome will be bias. Moreover, snapshot may occur. For example, the interview conducted during the harvest season might get a better result than the actual reality. Therefore, the long-term picture should be taking into account in order for the outcome to be more anthological and longitudinal. Another problem is that people may not be honest, which is called courtesy bias. This way people will only answer what the researchers want to hear and leave the truth out. Thus, sometimes researchers may ask them to draw the picture of their life, which turns out to be a better way to get the real answer. Chambers talks more about vulnerability and isolation of people. For example, the poor cannot transport to sell the goods. In conclusion, there are several ways to measure the level of poverty. Three most common methods are the lack of income, HPI by UNDP (lack of capability) and social exclusion by Robert Chambers. Each method uses different viable and factors to indicate the level of poverty, all have their own advantages and criticisms. Therefore, each one is suitable and appropriate in different situations and purposes. However, in my opinion, even though, the lack of income method might be easier to measure and assess, the social exclusion theory by Robert Chambers could provide the real well-being of people since it includes the important of non-monetary factors that are crucial for the welfare of people.